Provenance of the Book of Abraham Papyri

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Provenance of the Book of Abraham Papyri

Summary: One of the first items of importance in understanding the Book of Abraham is knowing a bit about its provenance. Knowing more about its provenance can help students resolve many important questions that surround the historical authenticity of the Book of Abraham. This page outlines the history of the papyri from the time of Egypt's Greco-Roman period to the present day.

The Ancient Owners of the Papyri

In early July 1835, Joseph Smith and a small group of others purchased a collection of papyrus scrolls and loose pages, four mummies, and various other artifacts. While the bulk of that papyri is no longer extant, according to numerous eyewitnesses who described it, today the Church owns eleven fragments from several of the original documents.[1]

Modern testing and investigation revealed that the papyri originated in the Ptolemaic period of Egyptian history (305–30 BCE), which was part of the Greco-Roman era. The original owners of the papyri were identified, though some of them had multiple names which initially confused scholars.[2]

A woman named Tshemmin (sometimes translated as either Ta-Sherit-Min or Semminis in Greek, with the nickname Neferirnub) owned a copy of the Book of the Dead (what ancient Egyptians called “Utterances of Coming Forth by Day”).[3] In life, she apparently held the highest female priestly role at the Karnak temple complex in Thebes: that of chantress of Amonrasonter. The title could also mean she was the wife of an Egyptian prophet at the temple complex.[4]

Oliver Cowdery made a partial copy of a scroll that is no longer extant; therefore, his copy is the only evidence that this scroll ever existed. Its original owner was a man named Amenhotep (or Amenophis).[5]

A man named Sheshonq (or Shishak) owned a hypocephalus from which Facsimile 2 was later created. Hypocephali were circular amulets of stuccoed linen, papyrus, bronze, wood, or clay that were placed under the heads of the deceased. These discs were believed to radiate light and heat, help protect the deceased during their journey through the afterlife, resurrect them, and transform them into gods.[6]

The other papyri known to belong to Joseph Smith were all once in the possession of a man named Hôr (Horos in Greek). He was a Theban priest who lived in about 200 BCE, which means he may have been one of the priests involved in Horwennefer’s revolt against the Ptolemies (Horwennefer is also referred to as Haronnophris in Greek and Hyrgonaphor in Coptic records). After the rebellion was quashed in 186 BCE, Ptolemy V granted a general amnesty, which included the surviving rebellious priests. Hôr’s date of death is unknown, so it is not clear whether he survived the uprising or if he was even a participant.[7] This was also the time period in which the Rosetta Stone was created, which detailed a separate revolt.[8]

In the temple complex at Karnak, Hôr served as a prophet-priest for three gods: Amonrasonter at the main temple, Chespisichis at the Khonsu temple, and Min-who-massacres-his-enemies at the Montu temple. As a priest, he had access to vast libraries of religious, historical, literary, reference, and ritualistic works and was one of the most literate, educated people in Egypt. And similar to endowed Latter-day Saints, he lived a code of personal purity, was initiated into the temples’ inner sanctuaries, and performed rituals that brought him closer to the gods he served.[9]

Hôr––like many Egyptian priests of the time––was buried with an eclectic variety of texts across multiple rolls of papyrus. His collection contained vignettes (or illustrations) alongside the texts, more than half of which did not match the textual narratives they accompanied. As was somewhat common in the Greco-Roman period, the genders of some figures were mismatched on the vignettes. Because the Jewish population of Thebes was large at that time and traditions about Abraham’s life were relatively commonplace, priests like Hôr would have been familiar with such stories. His possession of religious papyri featuring Abraham would not have been unusual in such an environment.[10]

The Papyri's Journey to Kirtland, Ohio

Napoleon Bonaparte’s military expedition to Egypt (1798–1801) introduced the Western world to the treasures buried in Egyptian tombs, including large amounts of papyri.[11] Papyrologist Hélène Cuvigny explained that quickly, “Merchants, diplomats, spies, adventurers, tourists, engineers, and technical counselors were everywhere in Egypt. They discovered an archaeological El Dorado and became antiquities hunters and dealers. Some of them (not least the consuls) financed excavations, whether from passion or greed, and assembled fabulous collections, which they sold in Europe, especially to museums.”[12]

Explorer Howard Carter, who found King Tutankhamen’s tomb in 1922, added, “Those were the great days of excavating. Anything to which a fancy was taken, from a scarab to an obelisk, was just appropriated, and if there was a difference of opinion with a brother excavator, one laid for him with a gun.”[13]

Referring specifically to the area of Egypt in which the Joseph Smith papyri and mummies were found, mineralogist Frédérick Cailliaud noted, “The whole area of the ruins of Karnak was covered with demarcation-lines that separated French, English, Irish, Italian, etc., excavations from each other. European ladies and other travelers explored the ruins and catacombs. All were trying to find or buy antiquities, and nobody thought of the heat and the fatigue.”[14]

In the midst of all that excitement, Antonio Lebolo worked for Bernardino Drovetti, an Italian diplomat, from 1817 to 1822 as an antiquities agent and dig supervisor.[15] He sent mummies in good condition from the Valley of the Kings to Drovetti, while keeping eleven others of lesser quality from the Valley of the Nobles for himself.[16]

Lebolo died in 1830. His oldest son then hired Albano Oblasser to manage the sale of the mummies and other antiquities. Oblasser shipped the items to Maitland & Kennedy and McLeod & Gillespie, two international maritime trade companies based in New York City.[17]

To date, no advertisement of the mummy collection has been found in any New York City newspaper from 1830 to 1833. It was believed for many years that an Irish immigrant named Michael Chandler somehow procured the mummies in New York City or possibly Philadelphia, shortly after they arrived in the United States. However, research by Brian L. Smith has shown that his name was not found among any hotel records in any cities displaying the mummies until 1835, shortly before the arrival of the mummies and papyri in Kirtland.[18]

The mummies, papyri, and other artifacts underwent a circuitous journey that can be traced through newspaper advertisements dating back to 1833. They were first displayed in New York City before travelling through Philadelphia, Baltimore, Lancaster, Harrisburg, Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Louisville, and New Orleans. One of the mummies may have been sold or damaged in New York. Two more were sold in 1833 to Dr. Samuel G. Morton on behalf of the Philadelphia Academy of Science. Junius Brutus Booth (father of John Wilkes Booth) purchased two more of the mummies in Louisville in early 1834. Two others were also sold or lost, though the historical record is unclear as to when, where, and to whom. Between the stop in New Orleans in May 1834 and their reappearance in Hudson, Ohio, in February 1835, there are no known records of the mummies being displayed anywhere. Only four mummies remained by the time they were shown in Hudson, and the entire collection of remaining artifacts was openly advertised for sale.[19] After leaving Hudson, the collection traveled to Cleveland, where Michael Chandler first appears in the papyri’s historical record.[20]

In July 1835, Chandler arrived in Kirtland, claiming to be Lebolo’s nephew, stating that the mummies and other artifacts had been bequeathed to him, and that he had heard of Joseph Smith’s ability to translate characters similar to those on the papyri.[21] However, this appears to have been a lie. There is no mention of Chandler in Lebolo’s will, and at this time, no known link between them can be found. The mummies and items seem to have been shipped from New York to Philadelphia through the Craig & Sargent shipping company, who later sued Michael Chandler for $6,000 for services rendered. The titular William Craig may have had ties to Maitland & Kennedy, as one of the partners of the latter was a man named Henry S. Craig. However, this connection is tenuous. There are no confirmed ties between William Craig and Henry Craig, Maitland & Kennedy and Michael Chandler, or between William Craig and Michael Chandler beyond the lawsuit, so this is mostly conjecture by historian H. Donl Peterson.[22]

An account from Oliver Cowdery reports that, during his first meeting with Chandler, he was allowed to copy some of the Egyptian hieroglyphics and that Joseph also showed Chandler some of the copied characters from the gold plates.[23]

A different secondhand account provides additional details. A young hotel worker reported that Chandler allowed Joseph to take some of the papyri home overnight. When he returned the next morning, he had a partial translation of the papyri. Chandler reportedly produced another partial translation by Charles Anthon (or Samuel Mitchill, according to some reports), compared the two translations, and declared Joseph’s to be satisfactory. The hotel worker explained there was “one language Professor Anthon could not translate which the Prophet did.”[24]

Chandler then offered an unsolicited certificate that pronounced Joseph’s translation to “correspond in the most minute matters” with the translations of other learned men. While this may have been a genuine offer, it seems more likely that it was done to entice Joseph or his followers to purchase the collection of papyri and mummies.[25]

Orson Pratt later recalled that when Joseph first examined the papyri, he prayed over them and was told by the Lord that they contained the writings of Abraham and Joseph of Egypt. When Joseph returned with the partial translation, he wanted to purchase the papyri, but Chandler refused to split the collection of mummies and other artifacts further, insisting on selling the entire collection to Joseph for the price of $2,400.[26] Today, this would be the equivalent of more than $86,600. Joseph could not afford this sum and recruited help from two others, Joseph Coe and Simeon Andrews. The two men each contributed $800, with the final $800 coming from a variety of smaller donors.[27]

The Papyri Under Joseph Smith's Ownership

The papyri and mummies were purchased the first week of July 1835. Once they were in his possession, Joseph immediately began working on the translation of the papyri, over which he labored through the end of July. Unfortunately, Church business took priority, and at that point, he paused the translation efforts until October.

In February 1836, Joseph Coe took possession of the Egyptian collection. In an attempt to generate income for the Church, he rented a room and displayed the artifacts to the public for a small fee. That August, they were moved to a room inside the Kirtland temple.[28] In November 1837, Reuben Hedlock and Phineas Richards were called to make arrangements to publish the translation.[29]

At some point in late 1837 or early 1838, bigger fragments broken off from the ends of the larger scrolls were glued to heavier backing paper and mounted under glass to better preserve them. It was at this point that the eyewitness accounts began to describe the scrolls and the fragments as separate items.[30]

The Church in Kirtland was overrun by apostasy in 1837–38. During that time, dissenters brought frequent lawsuits against the Smith family, stripping them of their property as judgment. This included the papyri and mummies, which were confiscated by court order on January 4, 1838, and handed over to Joseph Coe (who, by that point, was one of the dissenters). Joseph Smith fled from Kirtland to Missouri on January 12, leaving the artifacts behind.[31]

The Markells, a family who were friendly with the Prophet, retrieved the Egyptian relics from Joseph Coe by leveraging a debt he owed them. The items were then passed to the Huntington family, where they were hidden (mummies and all) under the bed of Zina, a teenaged daughter of the family and future plural wife of both Joseph Smith and Brigham Young. When the Huntingtons left Kirtland, the relics were passed to the family of Edwin Woolley in Rochester, Ohio. A member of the Woolley family, Samuel, left Rochester in late May 1838, taking the artifacts with him to Missouri. He arrived sometime in June or early July.[32]

Anson Call later reported that at some point that summer, he stopped in at either the Church’s store or that of John Corrill in Far West, where Vincent Knight was opening boxes. In one of the boxes, they found what would be published as the Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible, and the Egyptian artifacts. Together, they carried the boxes to Joseph’s office. A collection of men were gathered there, and the Book of Abraham translation was read and discussed for approximately two hours.[33]

James Muholland, Joseph’s secretary and scribe, took possession of the Bible translation and Egyptian items after Joseph’s arrest in November 1838. He gave them to his sister-in-law, Ann Davis, under the assumption that the mobs would hesitate to search a woman’s body more than a man’s. Davis made two cotton bags with a band sewn across the top, and put the papyri and manuscripts in the bags. She then used the band to button them around her waist, hiding them under her skirt. She wore the invention every day, from sun up to sun down. At night, the bags were stored under her pillows while she slept. Eventually, when the Smith family fled Missouri, Davis gave the document bags to Emma, who carried them safely to Illinois.[34]

This action did keep the papyri safe from the mobs, but the papyri were fragile and easily damaged. Weeks of being worn around Davis’s waist took a considerable toll on them, and inches were crumbled off the ends. Michael Rhodes demonstrated that a copy of one of the fragments from 1835 contained 34 lines of text, whereas that same fragment today only has 12 lines of text left, and those lines are only about 1/3 of their length in 1835.[35]

In Nauvoo, the mummies and papyri were first displayed to the public for a quarter per person on the second floor of Joseph and Emma’s initial home. They then moved to Lucy Mack Smith’s home, before finally residing in the Mansion House once it was completed. After Joseph’s death, Lucy reportedly moved temporarily with the artifacts to Knoxville, Illinois, near her son William. There are conflicting reports over what happened to them next. They may have returned to Nauvoo with Lucy, or they may have remained behind in William’s possession.[36] Wherever they were being kept, Emma sold the entire collection to Abel Combs on May 26, 1856, approximately two weeks after Lucy’s death.[37]

The Egyptian Collection is Split

Within weeks of taking possession of the papyri and mummies, Abel Combs sold two mummies and the papyrus scrolls to the St. Louis Museum, where they were displayed.[38] Newspaper advertisements confirmed they were the same mummies and papyri that once belonged to Joseph Smith.[39]

Gustavus Seyffarth, a student of Jean-François Champollion (the man who discovered how to read the Rosetta Stone), examined the papyri at the St. Louis Museum, making him the only trained Egyptologist ever to see them. Seyffarth disagreed with his mentor’s methods and created his own method for translating hieroglyphics. That method has since been proven incorrect, but it did yield some correct translations, so his description of the scrolls should be considered.[40] He claimed that, after the Book of Breathings and the vignette that was recreated as Facsimile 3, there was another record on one of the scrolls. He translated it as saying, “Beginning of the Book of …,” but did not finish the title, leaving it unclear what else may have been on the scroll, or whether his translation was even correct.[41]

The St. Louis Museum closed in July 1863 and the curator, J. P. Bates, moved to the Chicago Museum, taking with him the mummies and papyri.[42] Identical descriptions of the artifacts appeared in both the St. Louis Museum catalog from 1859 and the 1863 Chicago Museum catalog. In early 1864, the Chicago Museum was bought by Colonel Joseph H. Wood, who renamed it Wood’s Museum. The papyri and mummies are believed to have remained there until the Great Chicago Fire destroyed the museum on October 11, 1871.[43]

The Mounted Fragments

Until the late 1960s, it was believed that that the entire collection of Egyptian artifacts once owned by Joseph Smith were destroyed in the Great Chicago Fire. Then, over Thanksgiving weekend of 1967, everything changed.

When Abel Combs purchased the collection from Emma Smith, he split it, selling two mummies and the papyrus scrolls to the St. Louis Museum and keeping the fragments mounted under glass for himself. Bizarrely, the remaining two mummies disappear from the historical record at this point, and it is unknown what happened to them.[44]

When Combs died, he left the fragments to Charlotte Benecke Weaver, his nurse. Upon her death, she left them to her daughter, Alice Combs Weaver Heusser.[45] She took the fragments to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in 1918, likely to either have them appraised or sell them to the museum, but no sale was made at that time. According to an internal memo, her visit was somehow connected to Rev. Franklin Spalding’s 1912 book, Joseph Smith, Jr., as Translator: An Inquiry Conducted.[46]

Nearly thirty years later, in December 1945, the internal memo was rediscovered by an associate curator, who began looking for Heusser. He sent out letters to every Heusser family he could locate in New York City. By that time, Alice had passed away, but eventually, the curator was able to find her husband and son. The papyri were still in their possession, and they were interested in selling them. The fragments were not of display quality and the museum already had other fragments from the Greco-Roman time period that were in better condition, but the associate curator did make an offer to purchase the papyri. The offer was accepted on July 30, 1946.[47]

Curiously, a few lines in the offer letter read, “A former member of our staff, now retired, who was in the Museum at the time your mother first brought the papyri here, has told us that he thought your mother also brought a circular piece of either linen or wood, or possibly metal, bearing hieroglyphic inscription, perhaps eight inches in diameter. This was the type of object that was placed under the head of the mummy in its coffin. Do you recall having such a piece in your family? It may be that our friend’s recollection is at fault after so many years.” While even the associate curator was unsure if the former employee’s memory is correct, it is interesting that he remembered a hypocephalus being among Heusser’s collection, given one was once owned by Joseph Smith. Heusser’s daughter-in-law was interviewed many years later and did not remember such an item in the family’s possession, but it was possible it did belong to the family in 1918.[48]

The Metropolitan Museum of Art kept the fragments in their archives for the next two decades, though they were never displayed for the public. In spring 1966, Dr. Aziz S. Atiya, an expert on Coptic and Arabic documents and a professor at the University of Utah, was visiting the archives to conduct research for a book. As he examined their papyri collection, he found a file containing the fragments and recognized the Facsimile 1 vignette. Also included was the receipt from Emma Smith to Abel Combs, confirming its authenticity and provenance.

Dr. Atiya reached out to connections in Utah and began working with museum staff to return the fragments to the Church. It was not a quick or easy process, as it took numerous meetings and approval from the museum’s board of trustees, which took considerable time. Finally, the approval was granted, and on November 27, 1967, the transfer was made.[49] The fragments joined another that was already in Church possession, and they have remained in the Church’s archives ever since.[50]

Why is the history of the papyri important?

The Book of Abraham contains profound truths about our covenantal relationship with God, the power of the priesthood, the preexistence and eternal nature of our spirits, and the creation and organization of the universe. Studying its words will bring us closer to God and to an understanding of our place in His eternal plan.

Learning the story behind the coming forth of this scripture is also important. The journey from ancient Egypt to Salt Lake City was a long one. The Lord’s guiding hand can be seen in the way the records fell into Joseph Smith’s hands, and then how fragments were returned to the Church. There were many points where the fragments could have been lost, just as the papyri scrolls were. Knowing the story can deepen our appreciation of the Book of Abraham as scripture.

Some questions still remain regarding the history of the papyri, the translation methods used, and especially the relationship of the papyri to the text of the Book of Abraham. Despite this, the likelihood of the book’s historicity has grown over the past half-century. Supporting evidence has “whispered out of the dust” with a “familiar spirit” (2 Nephi 26:16), just as has evidence for the Book of Mormon.[51]


Notes

  1. ↑ Kerry Muhlestein, “Papyri and Presumptions: A Careful Examination of the Eyewitness Accounts Associated with the Joseph Smith Papyri,” Journal of Mormon History 42, no. 4 (October 2016): 31–50; John Gee, “Eyewitness, Hearsay, and Physical Evidence of the Joseph Smith Papyri,” in The Disciple as Witness: Essays on Latter-day Saint History and Doctrine in Honor of Richard Lloyd Anderson, ed. Stephen D. Ricks, Donald W. Parry, and Andrew H. Hedges (Foundation of Apologetic Research and Mormon Studies, 2000), 175–213.
  2. ↑ While some of the names have alternate spellings, others are given in both Egyptian and Greek at different times. This is because the main administrative language in Egypt changed from Aramaic during the Persian period to Greek during the Ptolemaic and Roman periods. For more details, see Dorothy J. Thompson, “The Multilingual Environment of Persian and Ptolemaic Egypt: Egyptian, Aramaic, and Greek Documentation,” in The Oxford Handbook of Papyrology, ed. Roger S. Bagnall (Oxford University Press, 2009), 395–417.
  3. ↑ Stephen O. Smoot, John Gee, Kerry Muhlestein, and John S. Thompson, “What Egyptian Papyri Did Joseph Smith Possess?” in BYU Studies Quarterly 61, no. 4, A Guide to the Book of Abraham (2022): 14–18.
  4. ↑ John Gee, “The Ancient Owners of the Papyri,” in An Introduction to the Book of Abraham (Religious Studies Center, Brigham Young University; Deseret Book, 2017), 63.
  5. ↑ Smoot, Gee, Muhlestein, and Thompson, “What Egyptian Papyri Did Joseph Smith Possess?”: 17; John Gee, “Historical Overview,” in A Guide to the Joseph Smith Papyri (Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, 2000), 10–13.
  6. ↑ Stephen O. Smoot, John Gee, Kerry Muhlestein, and John S. Thompson, “The Purpose and Function of the Egyptian Hypocephalus” in BYU Studies Quarterly 61, no. 4, A Guide to the Book of Abraham (2022): 234–235. To learn more about hypocephali in general, see Tamás Mekis, The Hypocephalus: An Ancient Egyptian Funerary Amulet, Archaeopress Egyptology 25 (Tamás Mekis and Archaeopress Publishing, LTD, 2020).
  7. ↑ Marc Coenen, “The Dating of the Papyri Joseph Smith I, X and XI and Min Who Massacres His Enemies,” in Egyptian Religion: The Last Thousand Years, Studies Dedicated to the Memory of Jan Quaegebeur, 2. vols., ed. Willy Clarysse, Antoon Schoors, and Harco Willems (Peeters Publishers & Department of Oriental Studies, 1998), 2:1111; Robert K. Ritner, “Ptolemy IX (Soter II) at Thebes,” Seventh Chicago-John Hopkins Theban Workshop Presentation, 2006, 3; Willy Clarysse, “The Great Revolt of the Egyptians,” Lecture at the Center for the Tebtunis Papyri, March 16, 2004, University of California at Berkeley, online at lib.berkeley.edu; Gee, “The Ancient Owners of the Papyri,” 59.
  8. ↑ Foy Scalf, “The Rosetta Stone: Unlocking the Ancient Egyptian Language,” American Research Center in Egypt, online at arce.org.
  9. ↑ Gee, “The Ancient Owners of the Papyri,” 59–61; Stephen O. Smoot, John Gee, Kerry Muhlestein, and John S. Thompson, “The Ancient Owners of the Joseph Smith Papyri” in BYU Studies Quarterly 61, no. 4, A Guide to the Book of Abraham (2022): 201–205; Katelijn Vandorpe, “Archives and Dossiers,” in The Oxford Handbook of Papyrology, ed. Roger S. Bagnall (Oxford University Press, 2009), 241; Willy Clarysse, “Egyptian Religion and Magic in the Papyri,” in The Oxford Handbook of Papyrology, ed. Roger S. Bagnall (Oxford University Press, 2009), 584; Korshi Dosoo, “A History of the Theban Magical Library,” Bulletin of the American Society of Papyrologists 53 (2016): 255–260.
  10. ↑ Gee, “The Ancient Owners of the Papyri,” 61–63; Smoot, Gee, Muhlestein, and Thompson, “The Ancient Owners of the Joseph Smith Papyri," 201–205; Stephen O. Smoot and Kerry Muhlestein, “Prophets, Pagans, and Papyri: The Jews of Greco-Roman Egypt and the Transmission of the Book of Abraham,” BYU Studies Quarterly 61, no. 2 (2022): 124–126, 129–132.
  11. ↑ Kerry Muhlestein, “Prelude to the Pearl: Sweeping Events Leading to the Discovery of the Book of Abraham,” in Prelude to the Restoration: From Apostasy to the Restored Church, 33rd Annual Sperry Symposium, ed. Steven C. Harper, Andrew H. Hedges, Patty Smith, Thomas R. Valletta, and Fred E. Woods (Deseret Book; Religious Studies Center, Brigham Young University), 149–160.
  12. ↑ Hélène Cuvigny, as translated by Adam Bülow-Jacobsen, “The Finds of Papyri: The Archaeology of Papyrology,” in The Oxford Handbook of Papyrology, ed. Roger S. Bagnall (Oxford University Press, 2009), 31.
  13. ↑ Howard Carter and A. C. Mace, The Tomb of Tut-Ankh-Amen, 3 vols. (Cassell and Company, Ltd., 1923), 1:68.
  14. ↑ Frédérick Cailliaud, Voyage à l’oasis de Thèbes (Imprimerie royale, 1821), 82.
  15. ↑ Muhlestein, “Prelude to the Pearl,” 155–158.
  16. ↑ H. Donl Peterson, The Story of the Book of Abraham: Mummies, Manuscripts, and Mormonism (CFI, 2008), 45–60.
  17. ↑ Peterson, The Story of the Book of Abraham, 69–80. The Lebolo was apparently not immediately paid for the sale, and Francesco Bertola, Jr., was given power of attorney to sue on behalf of the family. The lawsuit never materialized, so it appears that payment likely arrived at some point. See pages 95–96.
  18. ↑ Brian L. Smith, as interviewed by Philip R. Webb, “Mystery of the Mummies: An Update on the Joseph Smith Collection,” Religious Studies Center Newsletter 20, no. 2 (2005): 3.
  19. ↑ Peterson, The Story of the Book of Abraham, 86–92, 162; Smith, as interviewed by Webb, “Mystery of the Mummies”: 1–5; Brian L. Smith, “A Book of Abraham Research Update,” Religious Studies Center Newsletter (May 1997): 5–8.
  20. ↑ Jay M. Todd, The Saga of the Book of Abraham (Deseret Book Company, 1969), 133–138, 175–176; Peterson, The Story of the Book of Abraham, 5; Smith, as interviewed by Webb, “Mystery of the Mummies”: 3.
  21. ↑ Oliver Cowdery, “Egyptian Mummies,” Messenger and Advocate 2, no. 3 (December 1835): 233–237.
  22. ↑ Historical Introduction, “Certificate from Michael Chandler, 6 July 1835,” Joseph Smith Papers, accessed July 3, 2025, online at josephsmithpapers.org; Peterson, The Story of the Book of Abraham, 83–86, 161–169.
  23. ↑ Oliver Cowdery, “Egyptian Mummies—Ancient Records,” Messenger and Advocate 2, no. 3 (December 1835): 235.
  24. ↑ “History of Provo: Dr. John Riggs,” Tullidge’s Quarterly Magazine 3, no. 3 (July 1884): 283; N. L. Nelson, “The Book of Abraham,” BYU Academic Review 1, no. 6 (March 1885): 46. As a young man, Riggs was a young hotel clerk at the hotel where Chandler stayed in Kirtland. Samuel Mitchill, mentioned in the Nelson article, was another of the scholars Martin Harris took the Book of Mormon characters to during his trip to see Charles Anthon.
  25. ↑ “Certificate from Michael Chandler, 6 July 1835,” and its [historical introduction, Joseph Smith Papers, online at josephsmithpapers.org.
  26. ↑ Orson Pratt, “The Book of Mormon—Promises to the Lamanites—Objects of the Record—The Book of Abraham—Gifts to the Church—Benefit of Immediate Revelation—Greater Things Shown to Those Who Receive the Record—Vision of Moses—Creation,” August 25, 1878, in Journal of Discourses, 26 vols., (William Budge, 1880), 20:65.
  27. ↑ Peterson, The Story of the Book of Abraham, 5–6, 161.
  28. ↑ Peterson, The Story of the Book of Abraham, 115–120; Wilford Woodruff, entry for November 25, 1836, Friday, “Journal (December 29, 1833–January 3, 1838), Pages 113–114,” Wilford Woodruff Papers, accessed July 3, 2025, online at wilfordwoodruffpapers.org.
  29. ↑ Entry for 5 November 1837, Sunday, “History, 1838–1856, volume B–1 [1 September 1834–2 November 188, Page 775],” Joseph Smith Papers, accessed July 3, 2025, online at josephsmithpapers.org.
  30. ↑ Kerry Muhlestein and Alexander L. Baugh, “Preserving the Joseph Smith Papyri Fragments: What Can We Learn from the Paper on Which the Papyri Were Mounted?” Journal of Book of Mormon Studies 22, no. 2 (2013): 80–81.
  31. ↑ Joseph Smith, “Agreement, 4 January 1838,” Joseph Smith Papers, accessed July 7, 2025, online at josephsmithpapers.org; Lucy Mack Smith, “Lucy Mack Smith, History, 1845, Page 241,” Joseph Smith Papers, accessed July 7, 2025, online at josephsmithpapers.org; Hepzibah Richards, “Hepzibah Richards letter to Willard Richards, 18 January 1838, Page 2,” Willard Richards journals and papers, 1821–1854: Incoming correspondence: Letters, 1837–1839, Church History Catalog, MS 1490, accessed July 7, 2025, online at catalog.churchofjesuschrist.org.
  32. ↑ “Prominent Mormon Women: ‘Aunt Zina’ D. Young Sought After as ‘Angel of Mercy,’” Church News (November 30, 1963): 16; Muhlestein and Baugh, “Preserving the Joseph Smith Papyri Fragments”: 81; Peterson, The Story of the Book of Abraham, 129–135.
  33. ↑ Anson Call, “Information copied from the journal of Anson Call, 1879, Pages 3–4,” Church History Catalog, MS 4783, accessed July 7, 2025, online at catalog.churchofjesuschrist.org. Call stated that Oliver Cowdery and Thomas B. Marsh were the ones who read the record to the others, but Oliver was excommunicated approximately five months prior. Given this discrepancy and the fact that the account was given 40 years later, some of the finer details of the account should be treated with caution.
  34. ↑ F. M. Cooper, “Spiritual Reminiscences—No. 2: In the Life of Sister Ann Davis, of Lyons, Wisconsin,” Autumn Leaves 4, no. 1 (January 1891): 18.
  35. ↑ Michael D. Rhodes, Books of the Dead Belonging to Tshemmin and Neferirnub, Studies in the Book of Abraham, 5 vols. (Neal A. Maxwell Institute for Religious Scholarship, Brigham Young University, 2010), 4:7–11, 62–75; John Gee, “New Light on the Joseph Smith Papyri,” FARMS Review 19 no. 2 (2007): 253–254.
  36. ↑ “1848 January–June, Page 205,” Historical department journal history of the Church, 1830–2008: 1840–1849, Church History Catalog, CR 100 137, accessed July 8, 2025, online at catalog.churchofjesuschrist.org; Joseph Smith III’s response to Heman C. Smith in “Another Book of Abraham,” Saints’ Herald 46, no. 2 (January 11, 1899): 18; “EHS sells mummies and papyri fragments to AC in 1856,” B. H. Roberts Foundation, accessed July 8, 2025, online at bhroberts.org; Peterson, The Story of the Book of Abraham, 191–198. Some of the accounts allege that William had possession of the Egyptian collection and refused to sell it to Church representatives. Others say that he sold the items to pay off personal debts. Almost immediately after Lucy’s death, Combs received a receipt of purchase from Emma, with no price attached. It may be that William had previously sold them and Combs was simply taking possession of them at that time. Emma may not have received any money from the sale, if that was the case.
  37. ↑ Peterson, The Story of the Book of Abraham, 183–198; Muhlestein, “Papyri and Presumptions,” 31–50; Gee, “Eyewitness, Hearsay, and Physical Evidence,” 183–187. The receipt is currently in the Church archives, though it is not yet digitized. It reads, “Nauvoo City May 26 1856. This certifies that we have sold to Mr A Combs four Egyptian Mummies with the records of them This mummies were obtained from the catacoms of Egypt sixty feet below the surface of the Earth by the antiquarian society of Paris & forwarded to New York & purchased by the Mormon Prophet Joseph Smith at the price of twenty four hundred dollars in the year eighteen hundred thirty five they were highly prized by Mr. Smith on account of the importance <which attached to> of the record which were <accidentaly> found enclosed in <the breast of> one of the Mummies. from translations by Mr Smith of the Records these Mummies were found to be the family of Pharo King of Egypt they were kept exclusively by Mr Smith until his death & since by the Mother of Mr Smith notwithstanding we have had repeated offers to purchase which have invariably been refused until her death which occured on the fourteenth day of May last this month. Nauvoo, Hancock Co. Ills May 26.” It was signed “L. C. Bidamon, Emma Bidamon former wife of Jos. Smith, Joseph Smith Son of Jos. Smith.” Spelling and punctuation in the original. Transcript made by the author of this page.
  38. ↑ “St. Louis Museum, A Combination of Exhibitions!” Daily Missouri Democrat 5, no. 200 (August 21, 1856): 3; H. Donl Peterson, “Some Joseph Smith Papyri Rediscovered (1967),” in Studies in Scripture, Volume Two: The Pearl of Great Price (Randall Book Co., 1985), 185.
  39. ↑ “The Mormon Prophet's Mummies,” Daily Missouri Democrat 6, no. 140 (June 12, 1857): 3.
  40. ↑ To read more about Jean-François Champollion, see Peterson, The Story of the Book of Abraham, 1, 7n1; Todd, The Saga of the Book of Abraham, 6–10; Allison C. Meier, “Jean-François Champollion Deciphers the Rosetta Stone,” JSTOR Daily Blog, September 26, 2022, online at daily.jstor.org. To read more about Gustavus Seyffarth, see Todd, The Saga of the Book of Abraham, 296–298; Peterson, The Story of the Book of Abraham, 201–202.
  41. ↑ Gee, “Eyewitness, Hearsay, and Physical Evidence,” 187, 189, 192, 209–210n45, 212n57; John Gee, “Some Puzzles from the Joseph Smith Papyri,” FARMS Review 20, no. 1 (2008): 123; John Gee, “Facsimile 3 and Book of the Dead 125,” in Astronomy, Papyrus, and Covenant, Studies in the Book of Abraham, 5 vols., ed. John Gee and Brian M. Hauglid (Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, Brigham Young University, 2005), 3:96.
  42. ↑ “The St. Louis Museum Will Positively Close,” Daily Missouri Democrat 7, no. 22 (July 9, 1863): 1; Todd, The Saga of the Book of Abraham, 301.
  43. ↑ Peterson, The Story of the Book of Abraham, 203–205; Todd, The Saga of the Book of Abraham, 301–303; “Amusements: The Museum,” Chicago Tribune 25, no. 73 (October 19, 1871): 2. An article printed in the Chicago Tribune announced that “The only article spared from the immense collection of curiosities that were stored in Wood’s Museum is [a] silver-mounted revolver.” However, it should be noted that after the fire, Wood’s Museum was rebuilt and in the late 1870s, sold some of their items to the Niagara Falls Museum in Ontario, Canada. No mention of mummies or papyri were given in the press releases, but the Niagara Falls Museum did have a collection of nine mummies by May 1999, including one which was determined to have been a Pharaoh and subsequently returned to Egypt. There were some second- and third-hand accounts describing one of Joseph Smith’s mummies as a Pharaoh. Thus, it is possible, though very unlikely, that if the papyri and mummies were being displayed elsewhere in 1871, they could have survived the Great Fire and made their way to Canada.
  44. ↑ Peterson, The Story of the Book of Abraham, 230–235. Initially, it was believed the other mummies were in Philadelphia, due to an error in the San Francisco’s Daily Evening Bulletin from September 25, 1857. An article falsely attributed to the Philadelphia Sun said, “About a year since, Mr. Wyman, of the Philadelphia Museum, purchased two mummies ... from a gentleman who had purchased them directly from the widow of Joe Smith.” However, this is a reprint of an article in the Daily Missouri Democrat, not the Philadelphia Sun, with the word “Philadelphia” mistakenly inserted before “museum” by the editor. See “Joe Smith’s Mummies, Etc.,” Daily Evening Bulletin 4, no. 145 (September 25, 1857): 3; “Jo. Smith’s Mummies,” Daily Missouri Democrat 7, no. 113 (May 13, 1857): 3; Stanley B. Kimball, “New Light on Old Egyptiana: Mormon Mummies 1848–71,” Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought 16, no. 4 (Winter 1983): 75, 82–83.
  45. ↑ Peterson, The Story of the Book of Abraham, 234–235. Because her middle name is Combs, it is likely, though not confirmed, that Alice Weaver was somehow related to Abel Combs.
  46. ↑ Peterson, The Story of the Book of Abraham, 230–231.
  47. ↑ Peterson, The Story of the Book of Abraham, 230–233.
  48. ↑ Peterson, The Story of the Book of Abraham, 232, 236n6. Peterson’s book was first published in 1995, meaning that this undated interview took place anywhere from about 45–75 years or so after Alice Heusser took the papyri to the museum for appraisal. If the family did own the hypocephalus, it was either lost or destroyed in the intervening years, though it is theoretically possible it does still exist today, hidden in an attic, basement, or antique piece of furniture.
  49. ↑ Jay M. Todd, “Egyptian Papyri Rediscovered,” Improvement Era 71, no. 1 (January 1968): 13–15.
  50. ↑ Jay M. Todd, “New Light on Joseph Smith's Egyptian Papyri,” Improvement Era 71, no. 2 (February 1968): 40–40-I.
  51. ↑ For examples of some of these evidences, Smoot, Gee, Muhlestein, and Thompson, A Guide to the Book of Abraham.
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